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explicit hypothetico-deductive cycles (Polanyi, 1969a, p138). The skilled scientist
practises his/her craft through acts of ‘trained perception’. Polanyi goes further to suggest
that even the true claims of science cannot be explicitly stated.

Polanyi (1969a, p140-142) expands on the relationship between the explicit and tacit in
the following ways: If a number of concepts or ideas are known in isolation, it is only
through an act of ‘tacit knowing’ that one is able to observe the relationship between the
parts and understand the ‘whole’. Alternatively, the ‘whole’ may comprise subsidiary
elements which, themselves, are tacit and cannot be explicitly stated (e.g. the skill of
riding a bicycle). Furthermore, explicit knowledge is ineffectual unless also known tacitly
(compare ‘reading about’, versus the ‘act of’, riding a bicycle). These notions relate back
further to Ryle (1949), who expressed a distinction between ‘knowing that’ (explicit) and
‘knowing how’ (implicit, tacit).

Tomlinson (1999a) states that teachers bring a rich explicit and implicit knowledge base to
their teaching. Student teachers tacitly know what to do in the classroom. However, any
new, consciously acquired teaching strategies will not have been consolidated into their
action repertoire. Tomlinson asserts that there is a limitation to explicitly learning how to
teach. He goes further by stating that new strategies may be applied only when learnt
implicitly. This may be logically extended to a limitation in explicitly learning and
applying concepts.

Woolnough (2001) argues that pupils need to be introduced to both explicit and implicit
knowledge, and to have the chance to build knowledge through experience. He argues for
an ‘authentic science’, described as:
The type of science that practising scientists know and do. Ibid., p257

This science draws on the tacit knowledge built up from experience. Tomlinson (1999b)
additionally draws attention to the powerful role of implicit learning in the acquisition of
capability. However, acceptance of this notion is not easy. Woolnough (2001) points out
that the explicit can be measured, but the tacit cannot. He furthers in that tacit knowledge
is considered subversive - who as a scientist wants to admit their irrational sources? The
admission that all knowing is rooted in an act of personal judgment is acknowledged by
Polanyi (1969b, p179) as being a threat to objectivity. Woolnough (2001) points out that
science only appears inductive by the way it is written up. Scientific theories develop from
hunches, guesses and pragmatic experimentation followed by rigorous testing.
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