The Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) was
introduced in England and Wales in 1965. It
provided an exam that could be used in secondary
modern schools, but in the new comprehensive
schools it increased the pressure on schools to
divide students between ‘academic’ and ‘non-
This led to the publishing of Circular 10/65, which academic’ streams. The CSE did have one
began with the bold declaration that it intended ‘to interesting effect, however. Through its localised,
end selection at eleven plus and to eliminate teacher-designed ‘Mode 3’ syllabuses it
separatism in secondary education’. However, as encouraged school-based curriculum development.
the control of schools rested with local authorities,
the process could not compel LEAs to go Inside primary education, however, the climate was
comprehensive; it simply asked them to submit changing. As the straitjacket of the eleven-plus
schemes that they could adopt to implement non- became less important, a more informal, child-
selection within their borough or county, based on centred model of learning, with an emphasis on
consultation ‘with all those concerned’. individualisation and discovery learning, was
possible. Piaget’s model of the child needing to
There was much prevarication in the process, and develop through a series of stages from ‘concrete
dates for submission of schemes were set but not operations’ to ‘formal operations’ supported the
enforced. There were issues about what should view that children would develop as they were
happen to direct-grant schools, and despite Labour ready, and that a less targeted and restricted
winning the election of 1966, the bill that would curriculum should be provided to nurture their
have implemented comprehensive schools more learning. This was supported by the teacher
completely failed to be passed. The bill foundered training colleges which encouraged students to
when Labour lost the election in 1970. This led to a support learning in this way. The teachers they
very varied implementation of comprehensive trained went in to schools in which they had a high
reform, and is why selective education continues to level of autonomy, both about the topics they
survive in some authorities. The comprehensive taught and about how they carried out the
‘mixed-ability’ system led to a change in the nature teaching. Local authorities also had advisers, usually
of curriculum resources developed and used. The recently teachers, who were employed to work
way in which classes had to be organised and with schools and were instrumental in fostering
taught led to new build and new approaches to innovative teaching styles, the outcomes of which
children working in groups. In 1963, Hille Furniture were not always as directly focused on measurable
Manufacturers commissioned Robin Day to design outcomes as they might have been. For some
a low-cost, mass-produced chair. The result was the schools, the very design of their new building as an
polypropylene chair, which is still ubiquitous in open-plan school supported the provision of an
schools 45 years later. individualised learning environment for children.
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